Description

Olive cultivation is a pillar of the Apulian culture and economy, but despite the importance of the plant, little is known about its origin or the time when it became the dominant cultivation in the region.

The project aims to create a comprehensive study, that includes evidence from different records, to outline of the history of the olive plant in Apulia from Prehistory to the Middle Age.

 

 

The primary source of information considered in the study were olive, olive presses and furnaces for the production of olive amphorae found in archaeological sites.

The survey also included pollen sequences from natural records and written documents dealing with the allotment of olive orchards. A major achievement of the project is the valorization of a product, such as the olive oil, which has a cultural identity that is deeply related to the Apulian agro-ecological system.

 

Results

 

See: Caracuta V (2020) Olive growing in Puglia (southeastern Italy): a review of the evidence from the Mesolithic to the Middle Ages. Veg Hist Archaeobot 29: 595-620. doi: 10.1007/s00334-019-00765-y

 

Elaion at the European Night of Researchers

Lecce, 28 settembre 2018

 

Workshop "Olivo e Olio d'olivo in Puglia"

Lecce, 10 dicembre 2018

 Scarica la presentazione del Progetto nell'ambito del Workshop

Project


 

Sample map

Map of sampling sites

Abbreviations:

A.I.: Archaeological Installation/Installazione Archeologica   Arch: Archaic/Età Arcaica   B.A.: Bronze Age/Età del Bronzo   Byz.: Bizantine/Età Bizantina   CH.: Charcoal/Carbone   Early Bro. Age: Early Bronze Age/ Bonzo Antico   Early Neo: Early Neolithic/ Neolitico Antico   Final Neo: Final Neolithic/ Neolitico Finale   Hel.: Hellenistic/ Età Ellenistica   I. A.: Iron Age/Età del Ferro   Imp.: Imperial/Età Imperiale   Late Rom.: Late Roman/ Tardo Antico   Mes: Mesolithic/Mesolitico   Middle Bro. Age: Middle Bronze Age/Bronzo Medio   Middle Neo: Middle Neolithic/Neolitico Medio   Nor: Norman/Età Normanna   O.S.: Olive Stone/Nocciolo d’Olivo   P.A.C.: Pollen Archaeological Core/Carotaggio pollinico in sedimento archeologico   Pal: Palaeolithic/Paleolitico   P.N.C.: Pollen Natural Core /Carotaggio pollinico in sedimento naturale   Swa: Swabian/Età Sveva   W.D.: Written Document

See: Caracuta V (2020) Olive growing in Puglia (southeastern Italy): a review of the evidence from the Mesolithic to the Middle Ages. Veg Hist Archaeobot 29: 595-620. doi: 10.1007/s00334-019-00765-y

Olive tree in Puglia



Neolithic and Aeneolithic periods- 7th to 4th millennium B.C.

The first appearance of olive tree in Apulia dates to the Mesolithic period (end of the 7th millenium B.C.) and is based on the pollen and charcoal of olive found in the archaeological site Terragne (Fiorentino 1995), other attestations include pollen grains in the Early Neolithic site Scamuso (Renault-Miskovsky, Bui-Thi-Mai 1997).
During the Middle Neolithic, olives were used in Carpignano Salentino but it not clear if they were consumed as food due to the bitterness of the wild specimens (Primavera 2008). Later, in the Final Neolithic, olive wood was used in Pulo di Molfetta (Primavera and Fiorentino 2011).


Enlargement of an olive stone and a sample of olive pollen

Olive continues to be appreciated by the Aeneolithic communities, who used the plant in funerary rituals in the stone-tumulus in Macchia Don Cesare (Aprile and Fiorentino 2018).
When archaeobotanical and palynological data are combined, the attestation of olive are concentrated within a few kilometer from the modern coastline at an altitude comprised between 0 and 130 m asl. Considered that inner parts of the region were inhabited since the Early Neolithic, and no evidence of the presence of olive is recorded inland, one can assume that stands of wild olive trees were only growing close to the coastline where a Mediterranean type of climate prevailed. The lack of archaeobotanical studies for the 4th and 3rd millennia BC prevents speculation on the local agro-economy and leaves questions about the role of olives in Puglia during the Copper Age unresolved.



The Bronze Age - 21th to 13th century B.C.

The earliest archaeological olive remains, mainly charcoal, date to the 2nd millennium B.C. The evidence pertaining the use of the olive come exclusively from coastal sites, such as Coppa Nevigata, Scoglio di Apani, Castello Angioino and others (Fiorentino and D’Oronzo 2012; Primavera et al. 2017; D’Oronzo and Fiorentino 2017).
The only remains of olive pits so far discovered come from the Middle Bronze Age burial in Piazza Palmieri and show similarities with wild and domesticated varieties widespread in the western Mediterranean (Terral 2004).
During the Middle Bronze Age, olive tree was a common specie of the Mediterranean maquis that spread along the coast of Apulia. The systematic exploitation that was carried out by the people settled along the coast favored the selection of useful traits, as the evidence from Piazza Palmieri suggests, but the process of domestication was far from being completed. There are no evidence that prove that men were able to propagate the plant, which would have allowed them to cultivate olive also inland, where part of the population lived.



The Iron Age, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods - 8th to 3rd century B.C.

The archeobotanical record shows that, by the 8th century the olive had spread outside the range of its natural distribution. Olive is found in Castelluccio (BR) (D’Oronzo 2012), an Iron-Age/Archaic site located at 380 m asl, way out if is previous range of diffusion.
The development of an olive-culture was reinforced by the cultural and economic exchanges between the Greeks and the indigenous communities, which intensified after the first Greek colony, Taras (modern Taranto), was founded (8th century B.C.).
With the Archaic period, the evidence pertain the use of the olive multiply in Salento, remains are fond in the archaeological sites: Via Perrella (LE), Cavallino (LE), Fondo Mbrufico and Fondo Casino (LE) and L’Amastuola (TA), (Colaianni 2008b; Lentjes 2011).
Data become even more abundant for the 5th-4th centuries, when olive became a staple for the indigenous population settled in Castello d’Alceste (BR) and Monte Papalucio (LE) (D’Oronzo 2012; Ciaraldi 1997). The first installation for the extraction of olive oil, found at Oliovitolo (TA), is dated to this period (Alessio 2001).
A similar trend might have developed in northern Apulia, where the natural pollen records (see. Battaglia) show a constant increase in olive pollen during the second half of the 1st millennium B.C. (Caroli and Caldara 2006).
With the Hellenistic period, olive cultivation became widespread in southern Italy (Mercuri et al. 2013) and archaeobotanical and palynological evidence confirm the pivotal role of olive in the Apulian agro-economy. Archaeological evidence in southern Apulia, point out at the re-organization of the rural territory around the major centers during the early Hellenistic period (D’Andria 1989, Burges 2009). Some archeologists related the boom of urban and rural settlements to agriculture specialization, which, in their opinion, was based on large-scale vine and olive cultivation (Yntema 1993, 2008). The archaeobotanical evidence show that the olive is ubiquitous in sites dated between the 4th and 2nd century B.C., but it is rather difficult to estimate the intensity of the olive cultivation and the role it played in the rural economy.
The 3rd-2nd centuries are also characterized by an increase in the number of installations for the extraction of olive oil, which include Oliovitolo (TA), Monte Sannace (BA) and Botromagno (BA) (Alessio 2001; Ciancio 1989; Ciancio and Small 1990).



The Roman period - 2nd century BC to 6th century B.C.

During the early years of the imperium, the Apulian olive oil was mostly produced for export; Varro refers to Brindisi as one of the major port for trading olive oil (Varr. Re Rust. 2, 6, 5). The role of Brindisi as a strategic hub for the commercialization of the oil produced in Salento is confirmed by the presence of centers, such as Giancola (BR), in the proximity of the town, for the extraction of the oil and the production of amphorae for shipping it (for details see Palazzo 1994, Manacorda 1990).
The remains of an installation for the oil extraction found in P.tta Castromediano (LE) (D'Andria 2004), and the furnace for the production of amphorae discovered in Felline (LE) (Pagliara 1968), confirm the importance of Salento as center for the production and export of olive oil during the early centuries of the Roman Empire. Other archaeological evidence are available for the province of Taranto, including installations for olive oil extraction in Oliovitolo, Loc. Pizzariello and Angiulli (Alessio 2001; Andreassi 2006).
Between the 1st and the 3rd century A.D. Roman influence spread over the Mediterranean basins and new markets opened to satisfy the growing demand of food supply for Roman citizens (Panella and Tchernia 2002).Sign of a possible reconversion, around the 2nd- 3rd century A.D., might be seen in the pollen record of Alimini and Battaglia, where olive pollen suddenly decreased. The decrease is accompanied by an increase in herbaceous species, which can be related to the cultivation of cereals (Di Rita and Magri 2009, Caroli and Caldara 2006).
If there was indeed a shift toward a cereal-based agriculture, the production of olive did not completely disappeared from Apulia. Remains of olive are ubiquitous in the archaeological sites through the entire roman period, and installations for the extraction of olive oil in use through all the roman period. The stele from Herdonia also proved that a group of olive refiners was still active in northern Apulia in the 2nd century A.D. (Mommsen 1883).



Early and Late Middle Ages - 7th to 14th century A.D.

The information available on the olive cultivation in Apulia between the late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, is relatively scarce. Because the historical upheavals that struck the region between the 5th and 6th century A.D. (De Robertis 1972).
Over the course of the 7th century A.D., the influence of the clerics grew exponentially due to the donation of large portions of the countryside and the support of the Lombard rules to the Beneventan abbeys, so that rural dioceses became the driving force of the local agricultural economy (Martin 1993).
For the period comprised between the 7thand the 8th century A.D., there are evidence from north Apulia, an area under the influence of the Lombard rulers. The pollen record from Battaglia shows olive trees growing along the Gargano coast (Caroli and Caldara 2006), while a written document mentions olive groves as part of the property of the Beneventan abbey of Canosa (Federici 1926). The evidence come from Salento, a stronghold of the Byzantines, where remains of olive are found in Apigliano, Loc. Scorpo and Paretone, while olive pollen is found in abundance in Alimini (Arthur et al. 2010; Fiorentino 2008;Grasso et al. 2012; Di Rita and Magri 2009).
Between the 9th and the 10th cent., extended portions of the Apulian territory were abandoned as consequence of the conflict between the Lombards and the Byzantines and the continuous raids of Saracens on the coastal areas of Apulia (Martin 1993).
Central Apulia is among those areas that shows early signs of an economic recovery thanks to the role of Bari as the capital of the Byzantine Province of Italy (Martin and Noyé 1989). Among the documents dated to this period, the majority mention olive groves on the calcareous hills Murgie, in central Apulia, around Bari, Genna, Monopoli, Polignano, Conversano, and the Benedictine abbeys of Trani, Canosa, and Conversano (Nitti 1900; Coniglio 1975; Federici 1926). Fewer report of orchards on around Lesina, on the Gargano promonotory, and Lucera, in the Tavoliere plain Lucera (Leccisotti 1937, 1949). When it comes to the Salento peninsula, there are mentions of olive orchards in the countryside of Taranto (Robinson 1929) and Nardò (Pastore 1964).
The Byzantine control came to an end in 1071 A.D. when the Normans conquered Bari and extended their influence all over the region. At the time of the conquest, in 1070, the chronical of the Church of Saint Nicholas recorded the raids perpetrated by the Normans who plundered the stock of olive oil, wine and cereals from the countryside around Bari (Nitti 1990, n.44, p. 87).
The new rulers were nonetheless committed to the olive-growing as proved by an episode that happened in the aftermath of the conquest of Taranto, when Robert Guiscard, granted to a local monastery the right to exploit the olive orchards that had become his estate. A privilege renewed by his son, Boemondo, in 1090 (Leone Marsicano e Pietro Diacono Chronica III, 44, p.421 e IV, 10, p. 475). Until the 12th century, olive had been mostly cultivated in patches and often associated with other types of trees, but after the 12th century, olive-growing became a specialized cultivation with hundreds of olive trees being cultivated together (Licinio 1983).
From the 12th century onward, the cultivation became more extensive and the documents dealing often describe large portions of clerical estates as olive orchards.
Under the Swabians, olive oil was among the most successful enterprises and was largely traded abroad. The crown also begins to regulate the oil trade through the introduction of specific taxes and exit rights and the market seems to appreciate even more the Apulian olive oil. Thanks to the Venetian and Florentines, the Apulian olive oil became regularly shipped to the most important ports of the time (Balducci Pegolotti 1347 ;De Leo 1940;Cherubini 1987).

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CREDITS

 

The project ELAION - Enhancing the history of Apulian olive oil to promote a local brand aims to enhance the Apulian olive tree as a symbol of the historical memory of this land and to propose to the consumers a taste of the ancient tradition of the local olive oil. The project ELAION was financed by European Social Fund (FSE) and Apulian Regional Council, on the measure “Future In Research”, 2015-2018 (Grant Number 5ACGSJG4).

 

The project was carried out by Dr Valentina Caracuta and hosted by the Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology of the Salento University.

 

Contact Info

AddressLaboratorio di Archeobotanica e Paleoecologia

Dipartimento di Beni Archeologici

Via Birago 64, 73100 Lecce

Phone +39 0832 291111

Email projectelaion@gmail.com